Organizational Behavior, Integrative Paper Essay

Organizational Behavior, Integrative Paper - Essay Example ions, interpersonal conflict management strategies, how groups become teams, leadership different from management, and types of organizational structures. Strategic decisions differ form operational decisions in that strategic decisions deal with long term issues, while operational decisions cover the immediate or short term. Some examples of strategic decisions are decisions to purchase new equipment to implement upgrades, profitability decisions, capital investment decisions, and decisions on how to improve the market share of an enterprise. The executive management team of a company is responsible for the strategic decisions of a company. A few years ago I encountered at my job the difficulties associated with strategic and operational decisions. The crew of employees I was working with made a request for new equipment to be used immediately in the company. The use of the $30,000 machinery would reduce the completion time of the project by 50%. The overall project cost was going to be lower due to the labor savings. The team was very frustrated when the petition was denied. The justification for denying the request was that money w as being reserve to purchase new equipment in the summer of 2013. Our team was not able to produce like they could because the company preferred to save money for the long term strategic decisions than to invest money to improve the current operations of the firm. Strategic decisions are also important. For instance companies such as Microsoft when they release a new product they already have a plan ready on how to substitute the product once it reaches the declining stage of its product life cycle. Conflict in the workplace is an undesirable outcome that occurs due to the inevitable differences among human beings. Conflict occurs when two or more parties disagree over a substantial issue. One of the causes of conflict is people not being able to control their emotions. The four stages of conflict are antecedent conditions, felt

Haircare Limited Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Haircare Limited - Case Study Example They include both present and future expected losses." (Cornell Law School) The torts may be classified as specific torts pertaining to trespass, assault, battery, negligence, products liability and intentional infliction of emotional distress. In the instant case study of Hair Care Limited this paper envisages analyzing the legal position with respect to the claim for damages by Joan, the claimant against the Hair colorant manufacturers Hair Care Limited and Barber, the proprietor of a hair dressing salon for the personal injury suffered by her by using the colourant manufactured by Hair Care Limited. The paper also discusses the liability of the hair dresser Barber towards compensating Joan for her injury and suffering. The instant case is because of the negligence of Barber, the hairdresser to advise the beautician or the customer about the potential danger of the usage of the colourant and the requirement that a patch test is to be conducted before use. Although, he was having knowledge of the potential injury he didn't care to advise the people concerned. Hence it is a case to be claimed by the plaintiff Joan under Tort arising out of negligence. The following is the discussion on some of the issues concerned with negligence and tort. Negligence is the most important tort in terms of cases and mon... Negligence may be defined as breach of a legal duty to take care, resulting in damage undesired by defendant to the plaintiff. Tortuous liability arises from the breach of the duty primarily fixed by law. Such duty is to care. In order to have negligence there: Must be a duty of care Breach of that duty Result in damage Breach of a Duty: "In many cases no duty of care has to be investigated because they are obvious. The question is therefore: is there s a breach of that duty. It is obviously a question of standards. The idea of reasonableness is linked with how people react." ("Jus" d'orange) Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks 1856: Negligence is the omission to do something which the reasonable man would do or not do something which the reasonable man would not do. Other factors in accessing that reasonable care are: Probability of the thing occurring Seriousness of the event at risk if it did happen Practicality and precautions Consideration of the social value of the defendant's activities Product Liability and Manufacturing Risks: A manufacturing defect will attract liability. In Grant v. Australian Knitting Mills (1935) Manufacturer of underwear out of wool. One of the products to clean wool is sulfate. Through an error, the garment bought by plaintiff was not washed off from sulfate. He was sensitive & washed them but not sufficient which resulted in huge dermatological reaction which almost killed him. Proceedings were brought against both the seller and the manufacturer. The manufacturer's defense was that it was the first instance they ever had any complaint and hence they should not be blamed. On the contrary they were really careful. The Privy Council said: one explanation is that an employee was negligent then it

Langauge structure Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Langauge structure - Assignment Example Arabski (1979 pp.135-143) says that making errors is part of the process of acquiring a language and is mostly influenced by transference and simplification. English and Arabic languages are different in many ways and as expected Arab speakers encounter many phonological, morphological and semantic problems when learning English. Arabic speakers do not recognize how to use adjectives in sentences. This is because in Arabic adjectives come after the noun whereas in English adjectives come before the noun. Most Arabic speaks erroneously transfer their knowledge of adjectives during the course of learning English (Cruse 1986 pp.40). This paper will discuss how Arab speakers struggle using adjectives while giving specific learner errors. The discussion will focus on some published language teaching material and it will analyze, compare and evaluate these errors. Project Description Theoretical Framework Studying errors second language learners make is a field that has created a buzz amon g linguists. Several theories have been advanced, and one such theory is the Contrastive Analysis This is a process that explains the comparative aspects of the Mother tongue (MT) and the Target Language (TL). James (1998) provides examples for instance consonant clusters, tense and comparison of the form and meaning of the two languages. This according to Fries (1945) is supposed to determine the oddities that result to interference and error. The reason being a second language learner may find some aspects of the target language easy to learn and others hard. The assumption second language learners make is that it will be easy to learn those aspects that are similar to their native language and very difficult to learn those aspects that are different from their native language. Contrastive Analysis has been conducted on many languages. Khuwaileh and Al Shoumali (2000) studied the writing of Arabic learners of academic English. He was focusing the frequent errors on coherence tense errors, lack of cohesion and parts of speech errors. The study compared the Arabic language and English. Bataineh (2005) investigated the problems Arab learners of language and translators’ encounter when translating Arabic sentences. The focus was on articles. Contrastive Analysis has faced some criticism and thus other theories emerged to fill the gap. The theory advocating for the existence of a â€Å"psychological structure latent in the brain† brought in the idea of Interlanguage (IL) seen in the process of learning a second language. Selinker (1972 pp.209-231) claimed that second language learners created some interim grammars in trying to achieve the target language but this vocabulary changes depending on the task of extraction and the context. IL is influenced by Transfer of training, Language transfer, Strategies of second language communication, Overgeneralization and Strategies of second language learning. As it is impossible to acquire a second language w ithout making errors, many linguists have invested time and resources in analyzing errors and why they occur. There are several reasons for studying errors. According to Corder (1975 pp.122-154) errors can tell a linguist how much a second language learner has acquired and what other aspects of the language require to be emphasized. Also as, James (1980) put it, errors are also markers of how the process of acquiring a second

Political socialization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political socialization - Essay Example Indeed, to the best of my understanding, integrity and fear of God cannot be perceived to be different. Rather, they are complementary to each other. Politics is said to be a dirty game. This is a conclusion made after observing too many incidences of political foul play. Indeed, politicians acknowledge there is no true friendship when it comes to politics. I have grown hearing this word in news bulletins. Therefore, politicians and community leaders thrive by painting their opponents as enemies of their course and unacceptable to people, especially when elections are near. They do this through character assassination. However, there are certain positions I accepted, not because of experience or exposure. I grew up knowing that. For example, it was unacceptable to try to imagine a leader endorsing same sex relationships. We have lived to see gays running for political offices and claiming equal rights with others. As long as I can remember, the society treated such people as outcasts , and in some societies, they were killed. Through childhood training, I knew that people who subscribe to my value system as the best when it comes to politics and economy. This has caused communities to stick to the leaders to who come from their background. It becomes hard to accept people across the economic and political divide. Prejudices occur after years of training during the growing process of a child. I feel safe when I have a leader who can be fit into my community or convictions. This includes sharing the same faith and the same origin. After years of aggressive campaigns on government, political and society, the stand has softened. It is now possible to endorse a political leader who does not share the same roots with me. However, the mistrust still continues because politicians thrive by defining positions and power in terms of communities support and ethnicity. Extremely rich people prefer rich

Barack Obama and Rick Santorum Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Barack Obama and Rick Santorum - Research Paper Example The paper will look into details in a succinct manner Rick Santorum’s policy regarding Iran and their weapons. Rick seems quite radical and static about the Iranians. In one of the NBC press, he stated that he would work effectively with Israel to dismantle the ongoing nuclear weapon making process in Iran. The policy is to ensure that the Iranians remains under the control of the US militia ands that they do not grow weapons that can harm the US, in one way or the other. Some people, especially the Muslims in the US, have seen this as a form of hatred that the aspirant has towards the Muslims in the United States. Other evidence is revealed on Rick’s claims on Obama’s religion. He supported a claim that the US president is a vowed Muslim and should not be the president of the US (Lysiak & Reddan, 2012). As a presidential aspirant, the above stand has seriously affected his candidature, especially among the American Muslims. Most Muslims have seen him as anti-Muslim aspirant, and quite a number of them have withdrawn their interest in him. His claim or policy has not affected any other US citizen apart from himself. His crucial support in Muslim societies has significantly gone

The Law of Healthcare Administration Essay Example for Free

The Law of Healthcare Administration Essay 1) Compare and contrast the Stark Self-Referral Laws and the Anti-Kickback Statute.   Both the Stark Self-Referral Laws and the Anti-Kickback Statute were enacted to prevent healthcare providers from improperly benefiting from their referrals.   The Stark Self-Referral Laws are three separate provisions which govern physician self-referral for Medicaid and Medicare patients. The Stark Law states in essence that a physician wouldn’t be allowed to refer a patient to a place where the physician has either a compensation arrangement or ownership interest if payments for services will be made by the Medicaid or the Medicare programs.   The Anti-Kickback Statute prohibits anyone from willfully and knowingly from soliciting or offering any type of payment or gift to give referrals of services or items Medicaid, Medicare or most any federally funded program (excludes Federal employees Health Benefits Program). A defendant would have to be proven by the government to have specific intent to be disobedient to this law.   Unlike the Anti-Kickback Statute which gives the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services the ability to make exceptions, the Stark Law came with the exceptions already in place. Also, unlike the Anti-Kickback Statute, the Stark Law doesn’t allow referrals for specific health services.   The Anti-Kickback Statute is a criminal statute whereas the Stark Self-Referral Laws are civil statutes. Therefore, violations of the Anti-Kickback Statute would be considered felonies with penalties up to $25,000 and five years in prison. Also, civil penalties could be up to $50,000 and dismissal from the Federal Program. Whereas, violations of the Stark Law could result in penalties and non-payment, however, violators of the Stark Law wouldn’t be threatened with imprisonment.   Although they both can be confusing, the Stark Self-Referral Laws are more confusing because of how they came with numerous exceptions in place. 2) In examining the relationship between hospitals and physicians, under what conditions can the hospital be held liable for the physicians negligence? Under what conditions will the hospital not be liable for the physicians` negligence? If the hospital has prior knowledge of or should reasonably be expected to have knowledge of the incompetency of said physician and the hospital failed to protect the patient(s), the hospital could reasonably be held liable for that physician’s negligence. I would turn that around then and state that if it is reasonable that the hospital had no prior knowledge of incompetency on the physician’s part, and it could not be proven that the hospital was aware of any past incompetent actions of said physician, they would not be held liable. However, there is another complication to this which I will just include as a quote because I could make it more complicated in my own words, â€Å"The entity employing independent contractors is generally not liable for the negligence of such independent contractors, since the employing entity does not control the means and methods of the work to be accomplished by the independent contractors. However, hospitals may remain liable for actions performed by independent contractors on a variety of grounds† (Scott, 1998). 3) Discuss your perspective on whether a hospital should revoke a physician`s privileges. provide examples in your discussion. Are your examples â€Å"ethical and/or Legal in nature†?   I feel that a hospital should revoke a physician’s privileges if his license to practice is suspended, revoked or restricted. Also, if the physician loses Medicaid or Medicare privileges, their board certification or loses their Drug Enforcement Administration. In addition, I feel a hospital has the right to revoke a physician’s privileges if the physician is found to use illegal drugs or alcohol and if the physician is convicted of a criminal act. Having said that, I also support the physician’s request for a cure period which could be negotiated between the hospital and the physician. However, the hospital should have this in writing so that staff are aware of it prior to any revocations. Most of the examples I list can be considered as both ethical and legal in nature. 4) As the chief executive officer of a hospital and a member of its executive board, what are some of the key attributes you and your board should consider when hiring physicians and other clinical personnel? Could one actually deny a physician to a hospital without receiving backlash?   I would look for leadership qualities and if there is any experience or volunteer work in their past to indicate they have been in a leadership position in some respect. I would also look for good to excellent communication skills. This can be beneficial for a physician and clinical personnel in many ways. If there is something to indicate they are a strategic thinker, I would value this in regards to those positions. Of course, being a team player would be a valued attribute I would look for also. In addition to those attributes, physicians and clinical personnel considered for these areas need to demonstrate that they handle stressful situations well.   I feel one could absolutely deny a physician to the hospital and whether or not they receive backlash will depend on the staff involved in the interview process and how their morale is and trust in the final judgment of whoever it is that makes that judgment. 5) Please discuss your perspective on U.S. hospitals admitting illegal immigrants as patients? I am not opposed to U.S. hospitals admitting illegal immigrants as patients, however, just like U.S. residents, they need to be contractually and financially obligated to pay for their medical expenses or pay repercussions, which could and possibly should include deportation. Although I believe in humane treatment for all, we cannot allow the financial obligations created by illegal immigrants to fall on U.S. citizens or be absorbed by the U.S. health care system which in turn makes it more difficult and more expensive for U.S. citizens to receive affordable health care. 6) Healthcare organizations in the USA have been impacted with personnel turnover leading to such issues as closures of clinical units or diversion of patients to other hospital emergency departments. Based on your reading of hospital admission, please discuss your perspective of hospitals diverting patients to other facilities. Is this a Legal act? What can we do to effectively address the diversion issue in the US?   It is not illegal to divert patients to other facilities. This is often a necessary move especially if a hospital is full, too busy, if the patient is more critical than the hospital is rated for and a â€Å"for profit† hospital may divert non-paying patients. The hospital should make sure the patient is stable prior to doing any transfer or diversion. However, there are methods of effectively addressing the diversion issue in the U.S. For example, one cause of this diversion is patient-flow problems. Some hospitals have begun installing bed-tracking and patient-tracking systems that are aimed at reducing this patient-flow problem. United Hospital’s emergency department in Minneapolis used to have one of the highest divert rates in that area. However, a year after implementing a bed-tracking system, United Hospital had the lowest patient diversion rate in the Twin Cities metro area (Going, 2003). 7) Discuss a hospital’s process for ensuring it is in compliance with â€Å"HIPAA† of 1996. The hospital needs to have meetings to address the HIPAA and any modifications, and revisions to all of its affected staff. The staff then is given the information and must sign off on having read and understood it. The personnel needs to be able to direct staff to the site or person(s) that can answer additional questions pertaining to HIPAA. â€Å"HIPAA consultants who were intimately familiar with the details of the legislation and offered their services to ensure that physicians and medical centers were fully in compliance† (Health, 2007). 8) Identify a negative aspect of HIPAA, then develop a 200-300 word memo to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services that addresses the identified concern and your suggestion for improving it. July 03, 2007 Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In all due respect, many other physicians including myself are finding lack of clarity in what needs to be basic issues the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Because we must attempt to understand laws and new health care data on an ongoing basis, it is important that it be written as clearly as possible for we very much want to be compliant in this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Having said this, in speaking with many of my colleagues, we are unclear of who all can have access to the privacy medical records in regards to how this is written up in HIPAA. At first I felt I possibly was the only one having this difficulty, however, after speaking with my colleagues it appears to be an item that is unclear for all of us.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When you update or revise this, please address this issue and let it be known that I represent many others in this field who are having difficulty with this. If it were just myself, I wouldn’t take the time to compose this letter. I do sincerely appreciate your time and effort in this matter. I will be looking forward to reading and understanding your revised copy of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. Sincerely, Your Name 9) Can a physician who is receiving a large increase in Medicaid patients legally dissolve the physician-patient relationship with these patients because of the poor reimbursement rate? Explain your position. No.   By federal law a physician cannot dissolve a patient due to poor reimbursement of their Medicaid payment. One cannot pick and choose patients dependent upon the time it takes for the Medicaid reimbursement to arrive. 10) Discuss your perspective of physician-patient relationship and physician assisted suicide in your discussion, include whether a physician has the legal and ethical right to dissolve the relationship because of the patient wishes to end his/her life. Also, discuss your perspective if the physician honors this patient`s request. A physician has the right to tell the patient that he could not perform that particular procedure dependent upon the procedures they are expected to perform and recommend alternatives to the patient. If the patient is serious about what they want, the patient could then initiate the dissolution of the relationship and go elsewhere. However, I don’t believe the physician should dissolve the relationship because that puts the patient in too vulnerable a position. As a physician, I would follow the guidelines of where I work. I would also inquire as to those guidelines in such an area as this and make my decision as to whether that would be a place I would want to be employed by dependent upon matters and required procedures such as these. 11) How can the US contain the high cost of professional liability insurance? One way would be in changing the laws the way they currently address liability issues in the area of medicine. Other countries don’t even allow for this, however, even modifications in the current laws could help. As mentioned in one of the previous answers, going towards independent contractor physicians takes some of the cost away in that the hospital is not made responsible in most of these cases. References (2003, December). Going with the flow: tracking system helps Midwest hospital   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   streamline patient flow and lower emergency room divert rate. Retrieved July 2, 2007,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from findarticles.com Web site:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0DUD/is_12_24/ai_111646161 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. (2007, June 27). In Wikipedia, The   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:37, July 2, 2007, from  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Actoldid=141030639 Scott, R (1998, June 4). Hospital liability for negligence of independent contractor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   physicians. Retrieved July 2, 2007, from Healthlaw Web site:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.law.uh.edu/healthlaw/perspectives/Tort/980604Hospital.html Showalter, J (2003). The law of healthcare administration. Chicago, IL: Health   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Administration Press. Watnik, R (2000, March 1). Antikickback versus Stark: Whats the difference?. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   July 2, 2007, from AllBusiness.com Web site: http://www.allbusiness.com/health-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   care-social-assistance/468779-1.html

Critical Pedagogy Is Very Broad Education Essay

Critical Pedagogy Is Very Broad Education Essay The literature of critical pedagogy is very broad indeed and contains dense information. In fact, the political perspective of critical pedagogy towards the curriculum contributes much to creating abundant scholarships in the field. In addition, as many authors perceive, critical pedagogy lacks a set of definite principles; which makes the process of setting a unified definition of its premises so challenging. Still, the implementation of aspects of critical pedagogy in the classroom setting can have wide scale results on the teaching process as a whole. Hence, it is important to give a brief examination of the literature of critical pedagogy, an analysis of its core principles, and an investigation of the critique directed against its assumptions. By virtue of being critical, critical pedagogy and critical thinking share some common grounds. However, despite the existence of the critical stance in both disciplines, there are broad differences between them. One of these differences is related to the expectation of action in each discipline. In its emphasis on analysis and deep interpretation, critical thinking does not necessitate any action to achieve social change. On the other hand, the principles of critical pedagogy aim at creating a social action that comes mainly through educational practices. Another important difference has to do with the scope of interest of each discipline. Critical thinking is, by definition, individualistic and largely ignores the collective relations. Critical pedagogy, on the other hand, is more concerned with corporate action; that is why, as Burbules and Berk suggest, in critical pedagogy individual criticality is intimately linked to social criticality (55-56). Critical pedagogy might also be thought of as an extension of critical theory. Both critical theory and critical pedagogy employ their strategies with view at obliterating the hegemonic collective standards and paradigms. However, critical pedagogy is different from critical theory in the fact that it is mainly an educational philosophy that reacts towards the oppressive systems in the educational arena. The primary concern of critical pedagogy in this aspect is with issues that have to do with maintaining equal opportunities and establishing dialogical mode of discourse. As Burbules and Berk put it in the language of critical pedagogy, the critical person is one who is empowered to seek justice, to seek emancipation (50). Collins also describes the framework of critical pedagogy as being realistically involved in enlarging the sites within our institutions where genuine, noncoercive dialogue and reasonable opposition to oppressive bureaucratic controls can emerge (63). This proves that critical pedagogy involves an entirely new orientation that departs from traditional models of education and embraces a number of principles that may not be familiar in the generic pedagogical systems. The basic characteristic that separates critical pedagogy from other approaches is its celebration of social justice and emancipation. In addition, a critical approach to pedagogy is distinguished by an emphasis on dialogic interactions with view at giving equal opportunities for all voices. Critical pedagogy values the students experiences and locates these experiences at the centre of the learning process. The mission of critical pedagogy is more complex than it seems to be, and its scope encompasses a plethora of pedagogical approaches and practices. In Life in Schools: An Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Social Foundations of Education, McLaren points out that critical pedagogy aims at investigating, questioning and changing the relationship among different factors in the learning experience. These factors include classroom teaching, the structure of the school, and the social relations with the community. This imposes a great task on the critical pedagogue as he has to take into account a wide range of social and educational variables in his work (26-28). Critical pedagogy has its roots in Paulo Freire who is generally considered to be the inaugural philosopher of critical pedagogy (McLaren, Paulo 1). Although at first Freire dedicated his efforts to issues related to literacy in Brazil, his philosophy expanded gradually to embrace a cornucopia of social and educational issues that have been the object of criticism. In Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic Courage, Freire pointed out that what he called for was not merely a pedagogical method; rather, it was a strategy of living within the educational system (67). McLaren observes that the bottom-line of Freires pedagogy is to establish a non-hegemonic approach that is based on dialogue and interaction (McLaren, Paulo 2). This clearly shows the political dimensions of Freires philosophy. Freire actually stressed the importance of incorporating social and political critiques in the curriculum. This explains why his approach promotes a liberatory form of education that emphasizes emancipation and rejects all forms of oppression and domestication. In The Politics of Education, Freire maintains that the learning process should take into consideration two essential dimensions. The first is the context of authentic dialogue between learners and educators (49). The dialogue will empower students to move toward becoming knowing subjects and they will develop a relationship with the teacher in which one knowing subject [is] face to face with other knowing subjects (49). For Freire, by employing authentic dialogue in the teaching process, education becomes pedagogy of knowing rather than an experience of narration sickness (Freire, Oppressed 57). However, Freire warns that the dialogic process should not be reduced to simple to-and-fro questions that may also become tedious and sterile. Instead, there should be a focus on creating interaction between students and teachers in problematizing knowledge. In this regard, it is the responsibility of the teacher to inspire students to move forward within this critical practice (Freire, Freedom 80). The second dimension that should be considered in the learning process is the social realities in which students live. Freire states that authentic thinking, thinking that is concerned about the world is concerned with reality, and does not take place in ivory tower isolation, but only in communication (Freire, Oppressed 64). This suggests that earning should be connected to the realities of students lives. Otherwise, by ignoring these realities, educators will be creating divisions that make difficult the construction of our ideals of change and transformation (Freire, Freedom 55). A very influential concept in Freires philosophy is that of praxis. Freires praxis, which delineates critical reflection and action, entails the application of educational practices and philosophies to create a better educational experience. To this end, students should be viewed as active participants in the teaching process and in the formulation of teaching methods. They are engaged in what Simon calls a transformative critique of their everyday lives (Simon, Teaching 60). The teachers role here resides in encouraging students to get involved in reflection on their worlds so as to assist them in engaging in critical consciousness. For Freire, the development of critical consciousness in the student can be attained by means of implementing what he called the problem-posing model of education. Freire proposed this model as a counterpart to the banking system of education dominating the educational institutions. He asserts that the banking system fosters domination and oppression, whereas the problem-posing mode promotes liberation and democracy. He goes on to claim that whereas banking education anesthetizes and inhibits creative power, problem-posing education involves a constant unveiling of reality. The former attempts to maintain the submersion of consciousness; the latter strives for the emergence of consciousness and critical intervention in reality. (Freire Oppressed 68). Freires philosophy of education was adopted and modified by various writers. The most prominent figure in this aspect is Ira Shor, who was mainly influenced by Freire. In his Critical Teaching and Everyday Life, Shor criticizes the institutionalized modes of education which involve undemocratic approaches. He demonstrates that these traditional systems have restricted students from contributing to the learning processes. He calls for implementing learning activities that are democratic in nature. These activities are set against the notions of education that students have from their previous experiences within the traditional pedagogical system. The democratic methods of teaching would change the role of students from passive to active critical subjects in which they become active participants in their own learning (111-113). Shor also pointed out some of the limitations of Freires assumptions. Examining the applicability of the Freirean philosophy, he stressed the difficulties involved in implementing the principles of this philosophy within the classroom setting. In his When Students Have Power, he strongly argues that despite the benefits gained from the implementation of the assumptions of critical pedagogy; these assumptions do not go smoothly when turned into practice in the context of classroom environment (56). However, Freire responded to this claim when he stressed the fact that his educational philosophy was not merely a collection of strategies that could be implemented in all educational environments. Rather, different educational practices should be adapted depending on each individual context. Freire acknowledged that pedagogy is influenced by ideology and since ideologies vary a lot, the existence of a single philosophy of critical pedagogy is not practical. Hence, one cannot speak of pedagogy but must speak instead of pedagogies which respond to particular necessities, interests and conditions (Gaudiano and de Alba 128). The challenges of reaching a definite conception of critical pedagogy brought about different approaches to the philosophy by many writers. bell hooks, for example, supports Freire in promoting the link between theory and practice in order for the student to be the center of the teaching process. However, she does not employ Freires concept of critical pedagogy. Rather, she has introduced what she calls engaged pedagogy. She defines it as a system that combines anticolonial, critical, and feminist pedagogies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ for interrogating biases in curricula that reinscribe systems of domination à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ while simultaneously providing new ways to teach diverse groups of students (qtd. in Florence 10). A central feature of this model is the repudiation of the use of sophisticated language; a key feature of traditional educational methods that creates barriers between students and teachers. Roger Simon has introduced another significant approach to critical pedagogy which he calls pedagogy of possibility. In his Empowerment as a Pedagogy of Possibility Simon contends that proposing pedagogy is also proposing a political ideology. Hence, this model of pedagogy aims at enabling a particular moral project, a particular not yet of how we might live our lives together (372). He stresses the fact that such a pedagogy will require forms of teaching and learning linked to the goal of educating students to take risks, to struggle with ongoing relations of power, to critically appropriate forms of knowledge that exist outside their immediate experience, and to envisage versions of a world that is not yet in order to be able to alter the grounds upon which life is lived (375). Like Freire, Simon stresses the importance of not looking at his ideas as mere abstractions. Rather, they should be put into practice in all educational environments. Teachers who would implement the principles of the pedagogy of possibility must not expect a guideline for techniques to be adopted, but rather approach such a task strategically, locally and contextually formulating practice within an integrated moral and epistemological stance (Simon, Teaching 58). This will lead to a possibility for creating counterdiscursive activity that attempts to provoke a process through which people might engage in a transformative critique of their everyday lives (60). The complexities inherent in critical pedagogy have given rise to many critiques of its principles and assumptions. The scope of the criticism directed against critical pedagogy is so vast that it includes critiques from disciplines such as feminism, and postmodernism. It is of high importance to shed light on some these critiques directed against critical pedagogy in order to identify the potential challenges in implementing its practices in classroom environment. The first critique to be considered is that which comes from the very nature of critical pedagogy itself. Critical pedagogy inherently requires a constant investigation of its principles and practices. In this aspect, Giroux and McLaren contend that many current trends in critical pedagogy are embedded in the endemic weaknesses of a theoretical project overly concerned with developing a language of critique. Critical pedagogy is steeped in a posture of moral indignation toward the injustices reproduced in American public schools. Unfortunately, this one-sided emphasis on critique is matched by the lack of theoretical and pragmatic discourse upon which to ground its own vision of society and schooling and to shape the direction of a critical praxis (32). In her The Struggle for Pedagogies: Critical and Feminist Discourses as Regimes of Truth, Jennifer Gores critique of critical pedagogy is based on her contention that there are two distinct versions within critical pedagogy; she identifies these versions according the prominent figures who most contributed to the philosophy of each strand. The first version contributes to what she calls pedagogical practice. She suggests that Freire and Shor represent this strand of critical pedagogy which offers concrete suggestions and examples taken from their own pedagogical practice, and which is intended to help other educators (40). Gores criticism is directed against the other approach which she calls pedagogical project. This approach is represented in the contributions of many significant pedagogues, mainly Giroux and McLaren. Gore claims that their approach relies heavily on an abstract political vision and should not be called critical pedagogy, but critical educational theory (42). She goes on to argue that the major shortcoming of such an approach resides in its failure to delineate a set of practices for classroom teaching. As a result, their pedagogy might be seen to restrict its audience to those readers who have the time, energy, or inclination to struggle with it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and, in so limiting its audience, it subsequently limits its political potential (38). Essentially, Gores criticizes the fact that such critical pedagogues tend to focus on abstract theories that lack the potential for implementation. As an example, Gore cites the concept of empowerment, which is a key principle in critical pedagogy. Within the pedagogical project model, the concept of empowerment has been confined to extreme abstraction that forces teachers to be the agents of empowerment, without providing much in the way of tangible guidance for that work (Gore, What 66). Hence Gore calls for creating guidance for teachers so that principles of critical pedagogy can be translated into reality. However, Gore does not call for creating recipes for educational practices. Rather, she contends that theorists of critical pedagogy should take into consideration the context of the educational process instead of merely adhering to a unified theoretical background (Gore, What 67). As mentioned above, Freire himself rejected an essentialist view of critical pedagogy and called on teachers to adapt the learning process to the context of students experiences. In this regard, a great responsibility lies on teachers in determining the methodologies appropriate for each particular context. Similarly, Elizabeth Ellsworth employs a feminist perspective to refute any essentialist interpretation of critical pedagogy. She goes on to claim that even the term critical is a repressive myth[s] that perpetuate[s] relations of domination and hides the actual political agendas à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ namely antiracism, antisexism, anti-elitism, anti-heterosexism, anti-ableism, anti-classism, and anti-neoconservatism (93). She also believes that theorists of critical pedagogy have failed to launch any meaningful analysis of or program for reformulating the institutionalized power imbalances between themselves and their students, or of the essentially paternalistic project of education itself (98). Moreover, Ellsworth develops a deconstructionist critique of critical pedagogues. She claims that these pedagogues are implicated in the very structures they are trying to change (101). She criticizes the fact that much of the literature of critical pedagogy is the work of the dominant white middle class men. She goes on to argue that a relation between teacher/student becomes voyeuristic when the voice of the pedagogue himself goes unexamined (104). In his Elements of a Post-liberal Theory of Education, Bowers basic criticism resides in his claim that, in a way, critical pedagogy enforces the assumptions and values of Western metaphysics. Although he promoted the contributions of Freire and his followers, Bowers believes that Freires model emphasizes the modernist way of thinking, and thus it reinforces Western values and principles. For Bowers, all Freires pedagogy is based on Western assumptions about man, freedom, progress, and the authority of the rational process (127). He claims that the problem with Freires position is not that he advocates critical reflection but that he makes it the only legitimate source of knowledge and authority (129). Although Freires emphasis on dialogue as a basic component of the educational process has been praised as a democratic strategy, Bowers criticizes the very notion of using dialogue as a tool for emancipation. He contends that relying on dialogue in this aspect shifts the locus of authority from that of community and tradition to the individual who unifies thought and action in a new praxis (129). This focus on the individual on the expense of other collective concerns has lead to the failure of critical pedagogy in addressing issues related to ecology and the nature of the world. As he puts it, The problems of inequality and restricted individual empowerment are not nearly as important as the cultural roots of our alienation from nature. Regardless of how our agenda for social reform is framed, the bottom line has to do with reversing the global ecological deterioration we are now witnessing (159). A very important critique of critical pedagogy that should be highlighted here is that which comes from a postmodern perspective. In their Dialogue across Difference: Continuing the Conversation, Burbules and Rice explore the postmodern critique of critical pedagogy. The authors start their argument by suggesting that there are two versions of postmodernism that hold different positions relative to modernism itself (397). They call these two versions postmodernism and antimodernism. The authors suggest that a basic characteristic of postmodernism is that it goes beyond the norm but at the same time accepts the basic significance of the tradition it proposes to go beyond (397). They cite Giroux and McLaren as examples on postmodernist critics who relish some key democratic assumptions of modernism and yet go beyond them. Antimodernism, on the other hand, defines itself as the antithesis of modernism and is characterized by a strong antipathy to the language, issues, and values of modernism (398). The authors criticize this strand and assert that having deconstructed all metanarratives and radically relativized all possible values, antimodernism is left with no clear way of justifying any alternatives (398). The different positions of postmodernism and antimodernism account for the dissenting views related to the relationship between critical pedagogy and postmodernism. In this regard, some writers strongly believe that critical pedagogy is far from incorporating the premises of postmodernism. In Reflective Teaching in the Postmodern World: A Manifesto for Education in Postmodernity, Parker holds the view that many critical educational practices involve some modernist assumptions and fail to account for a genuine understanding of the process of knowledge construction from a postmodern perspective (16). Similarly, there are other feminist and postmodernist writers who assert that some strands of critical pedagogy do not address such issues which are of high importance in the field. In her Freire and a Feminist Pedagogy of Difference, Weiler explores the conflict she perceives between the modernist orientations of critical pedagogy and postmodernism. As a feminist writer arguing from a postmodern perspective, she claims that her goal is to retain the vision of social justice and transformation that underlies liberatory pedagogies (450). She suggests that the universal goals of liberation do not directly analyze the contradictions between conflicting oppressed groups or the ways in which a single individual can experience oppression in one sphere while being privileged or oppressive in another (450). Accordingly, Weiler believes that the theory that calls for the existence of universal experience of oppression does not take into account the specific contexts of the classroom experience. Hence the focal point of her argument resides in redefining the collective experience in the context of historically defined struggles (Weiler 451). In this regard, Weiler claims that Freire ignored the existence of diverse experience of oppression; hence she calls for a more situated theory of oppression and subjectivity, and for the need to consider the contradictions of such universal claims of truth or process (456). Weiler argues for a feminist-postmodern approach to confront the deficits in Freires philosophy of pedagogy. In this regard, she delineates three major issues where this process can be implemented. She names these as the role and authority of the teacher, the claims for knowledge and truth in personal experience, and the question of difference. Weiler concludes by asserting that the existence of different approaches in this arena does not necessitate abandonment of the goals of social justice and empowerment, but it does make clear the need to recognize contingent and situated claims and to acknowledge our own histories and selves in process (470). On the other side of the spectrum, there are many writers who strongly believe that critical pedagogy strongly incorporates some aspects of postmodernism. In Critical Crosscurrents in Education, Collins sheds light on this link between critical pedagogy and postmodernism as he suggests that, like critical pedagogy, postmodernist critical discourse is about the struggles for power to be heard about the empowerment of other voices' (76). In the same vein, Pinar et al. suggest that there is a possibility for developing a strand of pedagogy that engages in some postmodern principles. This version of pedagogy goes beyond the issues of oppression and suffering that are merely viewed from a class- struggle perspective (305). Other writers share the same view and contend that the philosophy of Freire and other critical pedagogues does incorporate some postmodern dimensions. Most of these writers approach this issue through dividing Freires writing into different phases, stressing that the postmodern orientations appear in his later work. Peters, for example, suggests that there are some postmodern ideas that can be clearly seen in Freires later work. These ideas include Freires emphasis on textuality, subjectivity, experience and culture in addition to his own interpretation of oppression and power (117). Similar to Peters, Roberts asserts that in order to locate the modernist inclinations in Freires writing we should look at Freires work as a whole, and not to focus on his writings during the first stage of his work. Roberts contends that Freire did promote some postmodern techniques in confronting all forms of oppression. He also highlights Freires confrontation with postmodern critics, especially in his later writing. Roberts examination of this issue concluded in his contention that Freire argues for what he called progressive postmodernism. Freire has stressed the fact that educators should challenge modern ways of thinking through becoming more tolerant, open and forthright, critical, curious, and humble (112). Clearly, the above argument proves that any attempt to come up with a clear-cut definition of critical pedagogy is utterly challenging. As mentioned above, there are multiple approaches to critical pedagogy, and there are also variables from other disciplines that are easily accommodated in this literature. All this results in creating critical pedagogies rather than one definite and universally- accepted form of critical pedagogy. These critical pedagogies are always involved in a constant process of redefinition and change, thus imposing great challenge on pedagogues in this regard. Despite these variations and challenges, teachers are always urged to go beyond the mere theoretical background of critical pedagogy. The process of theorizing without action creates no change and goes against the objectives of critical pedagogy. Teachers must promote an integrated approach of theory and practice, or what Freire called praxis. In other words, they should seriously consider the potential for implementing the premises of critical pedagogy in the teaching process. This implementation should go beyond the mere adherence to an essentialist view of a critical pedagogical methodology. Teachers should attempt, to the best of their abilities, to locate the teaching process within the realities of students lives. They should take into account the various variables, realities and experiences pertinent to students lives. Hence, they should adapt their techniques according to the specific variables pertinent to the context in which they work. The critique directed against critical pedagogy maximizes the need for this constant action on the part of teachers. In addition to adapting their educational tools to the classroom context, teachers are exhorted to encourage the involvement and empowerment of the students. Without putting the assumptions, principles and paradigms of critical pedagogy into practice, teachers run the risk of going within the traditional mainstream models of education. As Bahruth and Steiner beautifully put it: in our profession we have two choices; we can succumb to the mainstream and become programmed toward deskilling our intellect, or we can become critical pedagogues and liberate ourselves and those who choose to join in the dialogue (143).